A Deficiency in Which of the Following Minerals Can Result in a Decrease in Taste?
Nutrients. 2022 Sep; 11(9): 2050.
Taste Perception of Nutrients Found in Nutritional Supplements: A Review
Received 2022 Jul 16; Accepted 2022 Aug 28.
Abstract
Nutritional supplements are prescribed when ane'south nutritional status is non conducive to good health. These foodstuffs constitute full-bodied sources of nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and fat acids. For nutritional supplements to exist effective, patients must consume the amount that has been prescribed for the recommended period of time. Therefore, special attention must be given to the sensory attributes of these products. Indeed, the presence of active compounds can cause an off-taste or aftertaste. These negative sensations can lead to a reduction in the consumption of nutritional supplements and reduce the effectiveness of the treatment. In this manuscript, nosotros provide an overview of the sensory characteristics and the sensing receptor machinery of the principal compounds nowadays in oral nutritional supplements, such equally amino acids, minerals, fatty acids, and vitamins. Function of this commodity is devoted to the development of new masking strategies and the corresponding potential influence at the industrial level.
Keywords: nutritional supplements, active compounds, taste, taste receptors, bitter
1. Introduction
Balanced and salubrious food must meet our needs for nutrients. Notwithstanding, the many constraints of everyday life, undernutrition, and certain pathologies, such equally liver and gastrointestinal diseases, cystic fibrosis, and sure cancers, are not conducive to maintaining a nutritional status [1,ii]. Oral nutritional supplements can be prescribed to supply one or more food deficiencies and restore the proper development and function of the body [3,four]. The aim of these foodstuffs is to supplement a normal diet and constitute a concentrated source of nutrients or other substances with a nutritional or physiological effect, alone or in combination [5]. A broad variety of supplements are available in chemist's and drugstore market, and their formulation varies co-ordinate to the target population (effervescent tablets, chewable, supplemented drinks, powders for oral utilize, or gelatinous). Oro-dispersible forms are sometimes characterized by negative perceptual sensations such equally an off-gustatory modality or palatableness. As the global flavour is a driver of acceptability past consumers, these off-tastes found an important technological bulwark to consumer acceptance. It has therefore become essential for the manufacturers of these products to develop new strategies that are more inventive and effective to ensure acceptability. Just a modest amount of data is available in the literature on the flavor backdrop of functional nutrients. Flavor perception is the functional integration of information transmitted by the chemical senses: olfaction, gustation and oral/nasal somatosensory inputs [6]. In the nowadays review, the nutrients are non-volatile compounds and, equally such, are not able to activate the olfactory receptors; thus, nosotros will non particular the olfactive perception, including the scent perceived via the orthonasal route and the aroma perceived via the retronasal route. All the same, some off-flavors are due to volatile compounds formed by chemical reactions occurring during storage and manufacturing, these aspects volition be briefly discussed in the manuscript. The present review will mainly focus on the gustation perception of unlike types of pure nutrients used as supplements. The term taste volition be used for the oral sensation perceived by the gustatory organisation [seven]. The different basic sense of taste modalities are sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. Taste compounds also possess some trigeminal properties [8], mostly with astringent and irritant perceptions.
Indeed, dietary supplements are the results of the combinations of sure vitamins, minerals, amino acids, institute extracts, and polyunsaturated fat acids for a combined and synergistic issue. Most of these nutrients accept specific sensory properties, some of which are pleasant and some of which are unpleasant to the consumer. The showtime part of the manuscript will present an overview of the information available in the literature on taste, trigeminal descriptions, and the taste thresholds of the pure nutrients currently used in formulations, such as amino acids, fat acids, minerals, and vitamins. Establish extracts volition be excluded, every bit they are equanimous of a mixture of ingredients. These data volition be compared with the amount of nutrients present in the formulations to predict their potential effect in the formulations. Specific attending will then exist given to the sensory interactions occurring when these nutrients are used in mixtures, such every bit additive and masking effects. The terminal part of the manuscript will be devoted to the interactions between the nutrients and the food matrix and their effect to increases in the production acceptability and to the development of new strategies and their potential influence at the industrial level.
2. Taste of Amino Acids and Their Influence on Nutritional Supplement Taste
Gratuitous amino acids are normally consumed as nutritional supplements for a variety of reasons. Nine essential amino acids (l-histidine, 50-isoleucine, l-leucine, l-lysine, fifty-methionine, l-phenylalanine, l-threonine, 50-tryptophan, and fifty-valine) are not synthesized by the man torso and demand to be found in our food. The branched-chain amino acids (l-leucine, fifty-valine, fifty-isoleucine) are usually used for athletic preparation and musculus repair [9,10], whereas essential amino acids such as l-tryptophan, l-phenylalanine and their metabolites seem to have the potential to improve energy, mood, and quality of sleep [11,12]. Non-essential amino acids such every bit l-glutamine are likewise commonly used every bit food supplements for their suspected do good on digestion and the immune system [13].
The gustation of gratis amino acids has been described long ago and is known to be very complex (Figure i). Psychophysical experiments have shown that most amino acids and their salts accept a taste. In addition, numerous amino acids elicit more than one of the v basic tastes: Sweet, umami (savoury), bitter, salty, and sour. When we discover the quantities used in unlike preparations available on the market, it is possible to affirm that the amino acids contribute to the sensory taste of pulverization with higher amino acid content. In nigh cases, detecting amino acids by the sensory sensing machinery of taste is possible. Indeed, the threshold concentrations of 14 L-amino acids are lower than the 50-amino acid concentrations in nutritional supplements (Table 1). In contrast, many of the gustatory receptors for the five basic tastes have been identified since the early 2000s. The tasting of compounds is mediated by these taste receptors expressed in gustation receptor cells (TRCs) localized in the oral crenel [14]. The epithelial Na+ channel (ENaCs) and Otopretin1 (Otop1) are likely to exist involved in transducing the salty and sour sense of taste qualities [fifteen,sixteen], respectively. Umami, bitter, and sweet tastants are detected by G poly peptide-coupled receptors (GPCRs). GPCRs are membrane proteins that share transduction mechanisms and structural features. The detection of bitter, sweet, and umami compounds involves a mutual transduction mechanism involving a heterotrimeric Grand protein including the Gα subunit named α-gustducin. When a tasting compound binds to a GPCR, intracellular signalling is activated, including α-gustducin signalling, leading to phospholipase C-β2 (PLC-β2) activation and an increase in inositol 1,4,v-triphosphate (IPthree), which opens ion channels on the endoplasmic reticulum and releases Ca2+. The increase in the level of intracellular Caii+ causes the transient potential ion aqueduct of subfamily M member 5 (TRPM5) to open up, which generates sodium influx and the depolarization of TRCs [17]. The contribution of taste receptors to amino acid sensing is condign increasingly clear.
Structure, detection threshold values and gustatory modality qualities of the 20 l-amino acids [18]. Amino acids take been classified co-ordinate to their availability for the torso. ND, Non Determined.
Table ane
Comparison betwixt threshold concentrations and higher levels of l-amino acids concentrations in 22 g of effervescent powder dissolved in a book of 200 mL of h2o. This powder is a unique complex of amino acids from pure protein sources, whey poly peptide, and calcium caseinates (Nutritional Technologies International, Optizone ™).
| Amino Acids | Threshold Concentration (mol/L) | Amino Acids Concentration (mol/Fifty) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| l-Alanine | ane.62 × 10−two | < | 1.72 × 10−2 |
| 50-Arginine | one.20 × ten−three | < | 4.31 × x−3 |
| l-Aspartic acrid | 1.82 × 10−4 | < | two.55 × 10−2 |
| fifty-Cysteine | 6.3 × x−v | < | 5.5 × ten−three |
| l-Glutamic acid | half-dozen.iii × ten−5 | < | 4.1 × 10−2 |
| l-Glycine | three.09 × 10−two | > | 6.3 × ten−3 |
| l-Histidine | i.13 × 10−iii | < | three.85 × x−3 |
| l-Isoleucine | 7.51 × 10−3 | < | i.five × 10−2 |
| l-Leucine | 6.45 × 10−3 | < | two.58 × x−2 |
| l-Lysine | 7.08 × 10−4 | < | ii.07 × 10−2 |
| 50-Methionine | iii.72 × x−3 | < | iv.99 × 10−3 |
| l-Phenylalanine | 6.61 × 10−3 | < | 6.4 × 10−3 |
| l-Proline | 1.5 × 10−ii | < | 1.73 × 10−2 |
| fifty-Serine | two.9 × 10−2 | > | 1.46 × x−ii |
| l-Threonine | 2.57 × 10−3 | < | 1.72 × 10−2 |
| 50-Tryptophan | 2.29 × 10−3 | > | 2.19 × ten−3 |
| l-Valine | 4.76 × x−iii | < | ane.63 × x−2 |
Three proteinogenic amino acids take been reported to elicit a sugariness taste in humans, including fifty-glycine, fifty-alanine, and fifty-threonine. Interestingly, seven amino acids with the d configuration, (d-tryptophan, d-phenylalanine, d-leucine, d-histidine, d-isoleucine, and d-valine) arm-twist a sweet taste, while their l-forms do not showroom a sugariness taste [xv]. These differences in the taste of the different enantiomeric forms can exist explained by the activation of the sweetness taste receptor past amino acids [xv]. The sugariness gustatory modality receptor is a heterodimer formed by the obligate associates of ii GPCRs named TAS1R2 (taste receptor type one, member ii) and TAS1R3 (taste receptor type 1, member iii). The TAS1R2 and TAS1R3 subunits are members of the small family of form C GPCRs. This family includes the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR), the metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR), and the metabotropic gamma-aminobutyric acrid receptor (GABABR) [17]. Course C GPCRs share structural features, including an N-terminal domain (NTD) that is linked to the heptahelical transmembrane domain (TMD) by a cysteine-rich domain. The TAS1R2/TAS1R3 receptor [19] is able to observe a broad chemical variety of sweet tasting compounds, including carbohydrates (such as fructose, glucose, and sucrose) and natural (stevioside) and bogus (such as aspartame, saccharin, and cyclamate) sweeteners. The TAS1R2/TAS1R3 receptor is likewise activated by all of the sugariness amino acids in both the l- and d configurations mentioned in a higher place, such equally glycine, l-alanine and d-tryptophan [15,xix]. The NTD of TAS1R2 contains the chief binding site of sugariness compounds where d-glycine and d-tryptophan have been shown to interact [fifteen]. Moreover, at least three other binding sites have been identified in this heterodimeric TAS1R2/TAS1R3 receptor. The presence of multiple binding sites in the sweet taste receptor causes the allosteric mechanism responsible for the synergy that is known to be betwixt some sugariness tasting compounds.
Among the proteinogenic amino acids, l-glutamate and its salts (i.e., monosodium l-glutamate) are well known for their gustation backdrop. 50-glutamate is the prototypical stimulus that represents the umami taste quality (savoury). One feature of the umami taste is its potentiation by purinic ribonucleotides, such as guanosine-5′-monophosphate (GMP) and inosine-five′-monophosphate (IMP) [19,20,21]. The heterodimeric umami receptor is equanimous of ii GPCRs named TAS1R1 (gustation receptor type one, member 1) and TAS1R3, mutual subunits in the sweet taste receptor. The TAS1R1/TAS1R3 receptor allows the detection of all umami tastants. Only two amino acids, fifty-glutamate and l-aspartate, have an umami taste for humans, whereas behavioral and electrophysiological experiments have revealed that rodents are able to perceive a large range of amino acids as umami tastants.
Numerous d and fifty amino acids can elicit a bitter taste. The bitterness of amino acids is ofttimes empirically related to their overall hydrophobicity. With regard to l amino acids, those with hydrophobic lateral chains, such equally l-leucine, l-isoleucine, 50-valine, l-arginine, l-methionine, l-phenylalanine, l-tyrosine, l-tryptophan, and l-histidine, exhibit a biting gustatory modality [sixteen]. Bitter compounds, including amino acids, are detected in the mouth past 25 different bitter gustation receptors in humans, named TAS2Rs (taste receptor of type 2) [22]. In contrast, in addition to TAS1Rs, TAS2Rs belong to the very large family of class A GPCRs, which possess a short Northward-final domain. Molecular modelling and site-directed mutagenesis of TAS2Rs take demonstrated that the ligand binding site is located within the TMD. In vitro binding assays accept revealed the binding profile of 20 out of the 25 human biting gustatory modality TAS2Rs. Information technology has been shown that some TAS2Rs discover only a few biting molecules, whereas others are broadly tuned to detect numerous bitter compounds [23]. To appointment, 4 TAS2Rs have been qualified as orphan receptors; that is no biting compounds that are capable of activating them have been identified. The activation of bitter TAS2Rs is responsible for the bitter off-gustation of some compounds, such as the unwanted aftertaste of some sweeteners such as saccharin and stevioside. Cellular assays have shown that the detection of bitter amino acids is due to the activation of a set of five TAS2R receptors [24]: TAS2R1, TAS2R4, TAS2R8, TAS2R39, and TAS2R43. For case, the authors of this study observed that L-phenylalanine and 50-tryptophan could activate TAS2R1 and TAS2R4, respectively, whereas TAS2R4 and TAS2R39 both responded to d-tryptophan (Table 2).
Table 2
Response contour of half dozen TAS2Rs to d- and l-forms of tryptophan [xv,24] and phenylalanine [15].
| TAS2R1 | TAS2R4 | TAS2R8 | TAS2R39 | TAS2R43 | TAS2R49 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| fifty-Phenylalanine | + | + | + | + | − | − |
| 50-Tryptophan | + | + | − | + | + | + |
| d-Phenylalanine | + | − | − | + | − | − |
| d-Tryptophan | − | + | − | + | − | − |
In addition to the five basic tastes, a gustation sensation named kokumi was proposed approximately 28 years ago [25]. In Japanese, kokumi means "mouthfullness and thickness". Kokumi molecules have no taste themselves, but they are able to enhance the sweetness, umami, and salty tastes. Tripeptide glutathione (Glu-Cys-Gly) is the prototypical kokumi gustatory modality compound. GSH is tasteless, but in the presence of umami compounds, it reinforces their gustation and increases the long-lasting gustatory modality awareness [25]. It has been shown that kokumi gustatory modality detection involves the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR), which is expressed in TRCs [26]. Interestingly, cellular assays accept revealed that some amino acids, such every bit 50-histidine, l-tryptophan, fifty-phenylalanine, and l-tyrosine, can moderately activate the CaSR receptor and produce a kokumi sense of taste in humans [27]. Although the sensorial impacts of the amino acids idea to be involved in the kokumi taste are poorly understood, nosotros tin speculate that the interest of the CaSR receptor in taste perception causes the taste interactions betwixt some more circuitous amino acids.
3. The Taste of Polyunsaturated Fat Acids and Their Influence on Nutritional Supplement Taste
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are used as nutritional supplements for balancing blood lipid levels and preventing or reducing the take a chance of developing atherosclerotic changes, disorders and diseases. Fish oil is an important food source of PUFAs, has 18, 20 or 22 carbon atoms and is classified as an omega-3 or omega-6 fat acid. The primary problem with the use of fish oil equally a nutritional supplement is the rest fishy odor that arises from the oxidation of the unsaturated bonds, leading to the generation of volatile odorant compounds. The major components of dietary fats are triglycerides, merely the orosensory constructive stimuli come from fat acids. A positive correlation has been institute between lipolysis activity and fatty intensity [28], which confirms the hypothesis that fatty acids are released in the saliva by the hydrolysis of triglycerides and that fatty acids are detected in the oral cavity. Therefore, information technology is hard to calculate the amount of fat acids present in nutritional supplements and their impact on flavour perception.
To determine the existent gustation contribution of fatty acids, sensory tests were performed with a olfactory organ prune and the add-on of texturing agents to avoid olfactory perception and textural differences. Express information are available on the gustation backdrop of polyunsaturated fatty acids, but some information is available on the taste detection thresholds related to C18 unsaturated fat acids (Table 3). Concerning C20 and C22 PUFAs, such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5, due north-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6, n-iii), only information on their furnishings on other gustation perceptions are available.
Tabular array 3
Gustatory modality qualities and threshold concentration of fatty acids in different medium with or without nose-clip.
| Formula | Proper name | Taste Qualities | Threshold Concentration (Thou) | Medium |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| C12H24Otwo | Lauric acid | ND | 0.035 × 10−3 [29] | X |
| C14H28O2 | Myristic acid | ND | 0.22 × 10−three [29] | X |
| C16H32O2 | Palmitic acid | ND | three.9 × ten−5 [29] | X |
| CeighteenH36O2 | Stearic acid | Irritant, metallic, bitter | 1.4 × 10−5 [xxx] | UHT milk iii.five% fat |
| ND | 0.01 × 10−three [31] | Water, 5% gum acacia | ||
| ND | 0.05 × 10−iii [29] | Emulsion, 5% gum acacia | ||
| CxviiiH34Otwo | Oleic acid | ND | * 1.99 × ten−2 [32] | ten% gum arabic, 0.05% xanthan |
| Irritant, bitter, sour | * two.57 × x−ii [33] | 10% gum arabic, 0.05% xanthan | ||
| Severe, biting | 3.9 × 10−3 [xxx] | UHT milk iii.5% fat | ||
| ND | ii.0 × 10−2 [34] | Skim milk 5% gum acacia | ||
| ND | * 2.2 × x−iii [35] | Non-fat milk | ||
| ND | * 3.5 × x−3 [36] | x% skimmed milk powder | ||
| ND | ii.23 × ten−3 [36] | 10% skimmed milk powder | ||
| ND | 0.78 × 10−3 [31] | Emulsion, v% oil, 5% gum acacia | ||
| ND | 0.28 × ten−3 [29] | 10 | ||
| CxviiiH32O2 | Linoleic acid | Metallic, astringent, bitter | 2.39 × ten−iii [xxx] | UHT milk iii.5% fat |
| ND | * ane.v × ten−three [35] | Not-fatty milk | ||
| ND | ane.21 × 10−3 [31] | Emulsion, 5% oil, 5% gum acacia | ||
| ND | 1.55 × 10−three [32] | x% gum standard arabic, 0.05% xanthan | ||
| ND | 0.039 × 10−3 [29] | X | ||
| C18H30O2 | Alpha-linolenic acid | ND | * iii.15 × ten−3 [32] | 10% glue arabic, 0.05% xanthan |
| Irritant, metallic, biting | 0.41 × 10−iii [xxx] | UHT milk 3.5% fatty |
Fatty acids are not perceived as fatty; all of them are described as irritants, and some of them are also perceived every bit metallic (stearic, linoleic, and linolenic acids), bitter (stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids), astringent (oleic and linoleic acids), or nutty (oleic acid). A comparing of the taste thresholds calculated for saturated fat acids [29] shows that the value increases with the fat acrid carbon chain length. This tendency was observed for caproic (C6:0), lauric (C12:0), and oleic acid (C18:1), for which the taste detection thresholds measured with a nose clip were one.45 mM, v.37 mM, and 25.seven mM [33], respectively. The authors explained that FFAs with a shorter chain length are more than soluble in h2o and thus allow easier access to the taste receptors. Concerning PUFAs, the hateful gustatory modality thresholds for linoleic (C18:2) and α-linolenic acids (C18:3) were five.6 and ii.5 times lower, respectively, than that for oleic acid (C18:one) [32]. These differences could non exist explained past differences in either viscosity or particle size. High degrees of unsaturation lead to increased solubility and high improvidence rates beyond cell membranes or a different affinity for the receptor. The values establish in the literature for these PUFAs are on the same order of magnitude, that is between 1.21 and three.15 mM for linoleic acrid (C18:two) and iii.xv mM for blastoff-linolenic acid (C18:3, due north-3). More information are available on the taste threshold for oleic acid (C18:1) with great variability among the authors, ranging from two.ii to 25.vii mM for the detection thresholds measured with olfactory organ clip and from 0.78 to 2.23 mM for the detection thresholds measured without a nose prune. The lower thresholds measured without a olfactory organ clip tin can be explained by the presence of trace amounts of volatile odorants formed by the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids.
Despite the differences in the medium detection threshold values, great differences be between subjects. These inter-individual differences may be related to differences in salivary lipolytic activity [36,37]. A positive correlation has been found betwixt lipolytic activity and FFA concentration in saliva, suggesting that lipolytic activity is responsible for the formation of free fatty acids from the endogenous salivary esterified fatty acids. Thus, a high salivary lipolytic activity will produce a loftier amount of free fatty acids in saliva, which could induce a high gustatory modality threshold for free fatty acids, due to an adaptation of the sense of taste receptors to the basal salivary concentration in fat acids as proposed for oleic acid [38]. It has also been shown that the orosensory threshold for triolein and oleic acid decreases later on lipolytic activity inhibition [38], which confirms the role of salivary composition in orosensory perception. These inter-individual differences in the gustation detection thresholds to fatty acids may influence the consumption of fat, as this result was observed by different authors. Participants who were more sensitive to fat (low thresholds) preferred low fat concentrations [34] and tended to consume a small corporeality of high-fatty foods [35,39]. Moreover, information technology seems that the consumption of a depression-fat nutrition increased the subject's taste sensitivity to oleic acid [forty] and their ability to perceive modest differences in the fat content of custard.
The existence of fat taste detectors in humans is all the same nether fence [41]. Different types of lipid sensors have been proposed to exist involved in the chemoreception of fat acids. While the role of two GPCRs (GPR40 and GPR120), which accept been reported as potential fatty acid receptors in rodents, are uncertain, the gustatory function of Cluster of Differentiation 36 (CD36), a transporter/receptor belonging to the class B scavenger receptor family, has been extensively studied in humans. This transmembrane glycoprotein is expressed in rodent and human being sense of taste buds and binds long-chain fatty acids with a high analogousness, and it has been observed in humans that the CD36 genotype affects the orosensory detection of fat [38,42,43]. In addition, it has been shown that subjects homozygous for the rs1761667 Thou-allele (high CD36 expression) take lower detection thresholds for oleic acrid and triolein than subjects that are homozygous for the A-allele (low CD36 expression) [44].
4. Taste of Minerals and Their Influence on Nutritional Supplement Sense of taste
Minerals are essential nutrients that our body needs in pocket-sized amounts to piece of work and keep us in proficient health. They are especially necessary for edifice strong basic and teeth, controlling torso fluids inside and outside of cells, and turning food into energy [45]. Minerals are provided mainly by foods and drinks, such equally meat, cereals, fish, milk, dairy foods, fruits, vegetables, and mineral water; no single food item contains all of the required minerals, and thus, a single food item cannot provide all required minerals. A salubrious counterbalanced diet should provide all of the minerals to avoid nutrition deficiencies, but changes in modern dietary habits contribute to an important reduction in mineral food intake levels. Macrominerals-sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, and sulphur—are essential mineral nutrients. Other minerals, such as atomic number 26, manganese, copper, iodine, zinc, cobalt, fluoride, and selenium, are considered trace elements because they are needed in smaller amounts [45]. However, these trace elements may be essential. For example, fe is involved in a wide variety of metabolic processes, and its deficiency leads to chronic diseases [46]. Most mineral salts have taste properties, but some, such as zinc and copper, are necessary to maintain normal chemoreception. The gustation properties of mineral salts, including the threshold values, are presented in Table 4 and Table 5. Information technology appears that many mineral salts are involved in taste perception. Threshold detection has been reported for nigh of the mineral salts studied; however, their values are dispersed over a big range according to not simply the type of table salt but also the same salt, and they vary significantly co-ordinate to the blazon of water in which the salt is dissolved. Unfortunately, very little data is available concerning the taste backdrop of minerals, which may exist complex. It is difficult to guess the impact of minerals on the sensory sense of taste of nutritional supplements. Although the quantities to be used are indicated on the pack, mineral salts incorporated in the preparation are concealed by the pharmaceutical industries. However, the patents available in the scientific literature and the current inquiry suggest that some mineral salts are involved in the gustatory modality of nutritional supplements.
Table 4
Gustatory modality qualities and threshold concentration of mineral salts in different mediums, with or without nose-clip.
| Formula | Name | Taste Qualities | Threshold Concentration (M) | Medium |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| NaCl | Sodium chloride | Salty | * 8.0 × 10−3 [29] | Water |
| KCl | Potassium chloride | Salty, bitter, metallic | * ane.7 × x−2 [29] | Water |
| CaCltwo | Calcium chloride | Bitter, salty | * 1.0 × 10−2 [29] | Water |
| MgCl2 | Magnesium chloride | Biting | * 1.5 × 10−2 [29] | Water |
| MgSO4 | Magnesium sulphate | ND | * 4.half-dozen × 10−3 [29] | Water |
| LiCltwo | Lithium chloride | Salty, sour | * two.five × x−2 [29] | Water |
| NaI | Sodium iodide | ND | * two.8 × 10−2 [29] | Water |
| CuSOfour | Copper sulphate | ND | * 6.ii × 10−6 [47] | Water |
| Na2Then4 | Sodium sulphate | Salty, bitter | * i.seven × ten−3 [48] | Water |
| CaSOiv | Calcium sulphate | Salty, biting | * eight.3 × 10−4 [48] | Water |
| Na2NO3 | Sodium nitrate | Untasty | * 1.six × x−iii [48] | Water |
| CaNO3 | Calcium nitrate | Untasty | * i.6 × 10−iii [48] | Water |
| FeSOiv | Ferrous sulphate | ND | * 9.9 × 10−five [49] | Deionized water |
| FeSOiv | Ferrous sulphate | Metal | * 3.0 × x−5 [l] | Deionized water |
| FeSO4 | Ferrous sulphate | ND | one.six × 10−4 [50] | Deionized water |
| FeCltwo | Ferrous chloride | ND | * 6.6 × 10−5 [49] | Deionized water |
| FeClii | Ferrous chloride | ND | * half-dozen.iv × 10−5 [l] | Deionized water |
| FeCl2 | Ferrous chloride | ND | ii.27 × 10−4 [50] | Deionized h2o |
| CuSO4 | Copper sulphate | Bitter, astringent, metal | * 7.eight × 10−half dozen [50] | Deionized water |
| CuSO4 | Copper sulphate | Bitter, astringent, metallic | 2.46 × ten−5 [50] | Deionized water |
| CuCl2 | Copper chloride | ND | * 8.ii × 10−half-dozen [50] | Deionized water |
| CuCl2 | Copper chloride | ND | 1.56 × 10−v [fifty] | Deionized water |
Table 5
Sense of taste qualities and threshold of cations (mol cation/L) in different medium with or without olfactory organ-clip [51].
| Formula | Name | Taste Qualities | Threshold Concentration (mol cation/L) | Medium |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZnSO4 | Zinc sulphate | ND | * four.12 × 10−4 | Spring water |
| ZnSOiv | Zinc sulphate | ND | * ii.75 × ten−4 | Distilled water |
| ZnNO3 | Zinc nitrate | ND | * 3.36 × 10−4 | Distilled water |
| ZnCl2 | Zinc chloride | ND | * iv.12 × ten−4 | Spring water |
| ZnCltwo | Zinc chloride | ND | * 5.04 × ten−4 | Distilled water |
| CuCl2 | Copper chloride | ND | * 2.04 × x−4 | Spring water |
| CuCltwo | Copper chloride | ND | * 1.03 × 10−iv | Distilled h2o |
| FeSO4 | Ferrous sulphate | ND | * 3.21 × 10−v | Spring water |
| FeSO4 | Ferrous sulphate | ND | * half dozen.07 × 10−5 | Distilled water |
| FetwoH204 | Hydrous ferric oxide | ND | * 1.57 × 10−iv | Distilled water |
| MnSO4 | Manganese sulphate | ND | * 8.nineteen × 10−4 | Distilled water |
| CuSOfour | Copper sulphate | ND | * three.78 × 10−5 | Distilled deionized water |
| CuSO4 | Copper sulphate | ND | * 5.51 × 10−v | Uncarbonated h2o |
| CuCltwo | Copper chloride | ND | * 3.94 × ten−5 | Distilled deionized water |
| CuCl2 | Copper chloride | ND | * five.98 × 10−5 | Uncarbonated water |
Sodium chloride is a well-known salting agent that is extensively used in everyday life. Notwithstanding, other mineral and organic salts have been characterized by a lower salt intensity than NaCl and various gustation qualities [52]. In particular, the authors reported that at concentrations that produce a similar full intensity, all of the chloride salts except calcium chloride were saltier than their nonhalide counterparts, and the organic salts were considerably less salty than the inorganic salts. Salts with heavier cations, such as potassium and calcium, were too more bitter than the respective sodium salts. The use of potassium chloride is an alternative sodium substitute in food products. Potassium is an essential mineral nutrient that plays an important role in human organism functioning, particularly by contributing to the prevention of high blood force per unit area. However, this replacement introduces biting and metallic off-tastes that affect consumer acceptance.
Calcium salts are currently used as nutritional fortifying agents but have complex and unpleasant flavor properties such every bit bitterness, sourness, astringency, and a metallic perception, with the predominance of bitterness. Amongst calcium salts, calcium chloride, which presents a salty taste at medium and loftier concentrations, is characterized by a notable bitter gustatory modality. The suppression of the unpleasant taste properties of calcium chloride can be obtained by substituting the chloride anion with a gluconate, glycerophosphate, or lactate anion [53].
Zinc salts are added to most nutritional supplements. The perception intensity of zinc salts (i.due east., zinc bromide, sulphate, iodide, acetate, and chloride) was found to exist very weak for bitterness, saltiness, savoriness, sourness and tingliness [54]. Merely sourness was reported for zinc iodide simply this result is possibly due to confusion with astringency and the carry-over result. The major sensation elicited past zinc salts is astringency [54]. Zinc ions may demark to salivary proteins, resulting in a change in their construction and a reduction in salivary lubrication. However, the nature of the associated anion modulates the astringency intensity. Zinc iodide was significantly more astringent than zinc acetate, sulphate, and bromide. Thus, a careful choice of the anion in the formulation of nutritional supplements may limit this off-flavor perception. Compared to the other evaluated sensations, the astringency of the zinc salts was not significantly reduced after two oral rinses, thus showing an important lingering effect. This effect may be due to the binding of zinc ions to epithelial proteins with a strong enough affinity to persist subsequently rinsing with pure water [54].
Mineral ions such equally atomic number 26 and copper may be involved indirectly in metallic flavor perception, which is divers as a combination of taste and retronasal odor [55]. These authors suggested that the production of the metallic flavour is due to salivary protein oxidation past minerals and the production of oxidation-related aldehydes related to odorant lipids. The metallic sensation due to stimulation with ferrous sulphate solutions was found to be suppressed when the nose was occluded, showing that this perception was fully due to the evolution of a retronasal smell [56]. This miracle was not observed for copper and zinc sulphates, which were found to be more bitter and astringent, respectively, and less metallic. Iron salts besides exhibited other sensations, such as bitterness, sourness and astringency, which differ in their predominance according to the associated counteranion. These temporal sensory properties have been explored with ferrous sulphate, chloride, and gluconate [57]. The authors reported that these 3 compounds exhibited stiff and persistent metal flavors, but the oral sensations were complex and inverse with time. Ferrous chloride had the most bitter gustation and ferrous gluconate had the highest intensity of initial sourness and astringency. Taste properties were found to decay apace; although predominant sensations change over time, the long-term lingering of astringency and metallic tastes may limit the use of uncomplicated iron salts in supplement formulations [57]. The threshold values of fe and copper sulphates and chlorides were compared with two modalities: Without a nose clip and with a nose clip (Table 4); in each case, smaller threshold values were observed without the olfactory organ prune than with the nose prune [50], thus demonstrating the retronasal olfactory perception dimension of these minerals. Concerning copper sulphate and chloride, it has been reported that the perception threshold value does not change significantly when the olfactory organ is either clamped or not clamped [58]. However, the perception threshold is dependent upon the quality of the water in which the salts are dissolved (Table 4 and Table five); this result has been reported for several divalent metal salts, where the threshold value in distilled h2o was found to be lower than that in the aforementioned amount of jump water.
5. Taste of Vitamins and Their Influence on Nutritional Supplement Taste
Vitamins are substances without energetic value merely are essential for correct human body functions. There are currently 13 vitamins divided into two groups. First, there are nine water-soluble vitamins: B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), B5 (pantothenic acid), B6 (pyridoxine), B8 (biotin), B9 (folic acid), B12 (cobalamin), and C (ascorbic acrid) (Figure 2). With the exception of cobalamin, these vitamins are not stored for prolonged periods of time in the body, and their backlog is excreted in urine [59]. Second, there are four fat-soluble vitamins: A (retinoic acid), D (calciferol), East (tocopherol), and K (phylloquinone). These vitamins are assimilated at the aforementioned time equally lipids during digestion and are stored in fat tissue.
Chemic structures and taste qualities of 13 vitamins. Vitamins have been classified according to their solubility. 
h2o-soluble vitamins, 
fatty-soluble vitamins.
With the exception of two vitamins (Chiliad and D), the human body is unable to produce vitamins. Equally a issue, vitamin intake from food is essential for right body function. These substances are involved in a large number of physiological processes: Coenzyme role, electron and proton transport, membrane stabilization, and hormonal and gustatory function. For case, vitamin Grand is essential for maintaining an optimal level of sure coagulation factors, whereas ascorbic acid is a corking antioxidant [60]. It has generally been accepted that a balanced nutrition provides a necessary quantity of vitamins. Nonetheless, sure pathologies, certain drug therapies and limited admission to balanced nutrition may pb to vitamin deficiencies [61]. Since the recognition of vitamins as a requirement in our diet and the identification of vitamin deficiencies, many pharmaceutical preparations have been manufactured by pharmaceutical companies in several forms, such as tablets, capsules, and liquid mixtures for oral use. The main problem with their use as nutritional supplements is their negative perceptual sensations, such as an off-taste.
Dissimilar the unlike agile ingredients constitute in oral nutritional supplements, the taste quality of vitamins and their impact on the sensory perception of nutritional supplements have been poorly studied. Indeed, only a express amount of recent data are available in the scientific literature. Although no data is bachelor on the detection thresholds of these vitamins, some databases, books and scientific articles describe their organoleptic qualities (Figure 2). In 1949, sure vitamins, specifically the vitamin B circuitous, were already identified as being involved in the off-taste in some pharmaceutical preparations [62]. Years later, in 1975, the first descriptive sensory analysis of 8 vitamins, some belonging to the vitamin B complex (B1, B2, and B12), was carried out [63]. The sensory analyses were performed with a sensory panel of experts using nose clips to avoid olfactory perception. Vitamins B1 and B2 were considered to be extremely bitter and unpleasant by all panelists. In vitro cellular assays have demonstrated that vitamin B1 activates three bitter taste receptors, TAS2R1, TAS2R7 and TAS2R39 [22,64]. The activation of these receptors was non be demonstrated after the addition of vitamin B2 with the different TAS2Rs. Vitamin B1 has also been described as called-for and pungent, which are ii trigeminal sensations. Of the 8 agile ingredients tested, vitamins A, B12, D3 and K1 take been evaluated equally tasteless. In contrast, vitamin E has been characterized as fat and repulsive with an unpleasant taste, while vitamin C has been described every bit sour and fruity, with a pleasant gustatory modality for one-half of the judges and an unpleasant gustatory modality for the other one-half. This first and just sensory report on the taste of sure vitamins provides us with some information on their sensory quality and informs us about their possible implications in the off-tastes of sure pharmaceutical preparations. The untested vitamins (B3, B5, B6, B8, and B9) from this first screening by Schiffman are not tasteless [63]. Although no other sensory report has been performed on these vitamins, data about their organoleptic qualities can be found in books and online databases. Thus, information technology is possible to conclude the bitterness and acerbity of pyridoxine hydrochloride [65], the low bitterness of vitamin B5 analogues, calcium pantothenate and pantothenol [66], and the sensation of bitterness and salinity acquired by the ingestion of vitamin B3 [66]. These few scientific books and online databases allow us to augment and confirm the conclusions formed previously.
6. Interactions Betwixt Nutrients of Nutritional Supplements
As described higher up, most of the nutrients independent in nutritional supplements have specific taste qualities. In a mixture of nutritional supplements, sensory interactions can exist observed. Several interactions are possible when taste compounds are mixed. Enhancement results when the upshot of the addition of one chemical compound to another on a gustatory modality aspect is higher than the sum of the individual effects of the ii compounds; additivity occurs when this sum corresponds to the sum of the individual effects of the two compounds; and suppression or a masking effect occurs when this sum is less than the individual effects of the 2 compounds [67]. In nutritional supplements, several cases of sensory interactions have been reported.
The masking effects of mineral cations on taste perception occur in mammalian species. As an example, divalent heavy mineral cations were reported to have a masking issue on all taste stimuli (biting, sour, sugariness, and salty), while copper and zinc chlorides just masked the response to sweet stimuli in mice [68]. These authors reported that copper and zinc chloride (10−5 M) masked the sugariness response to sucrose and sodium saccharin without affecting the other taste responses, while the presence of fe sulphate, manganese, cobalt, nickel or cadmium chlorides had no effect on the sweet response or only slightly masked it at high concentrations.
Zinc (tested every bit the sulphate salt) was found to alter the sweetness and bitterness perceptions just did not bear upon saltiness, savoriness or sourness perceptions [54]. Zinc masked the sweetness of glucose at all concentrations, suggesting a non-competitive suppression fashion, only such masking effect was not observed with magnesium sulphate. Thus, zinc is a potent masking agent of sweetness in humans. Concerning the inhibition of bitterness, sodium and zinc salts were establish to mask the bitterness of certain compounds through action at the peripheral level [69]. It has been shown that zinc sulphate masks the bitterness of bitter compounds such as quinine at all concentrations tested [54] or tetralone and denatonium benzoate, whereas it has been shown to be ineffective on the bitterness of sucrose octa-acetate, pseudo ephedrine chlorhydrate, and dextromethorphan [70]. In particular, zinc lactate significantly masked the bitterness of iii and 4 mM caffeine but not 1.5 mM caffeine. The authors suggested that the zinc ions allosterically modulate the transmembrane GPCR receptors, presumably the TAS2Rs. However, the potential use of zinc ions to mask bitterness in foods and pharmaceuticals is limited because zinc ions may also mask sweetness [71]. Sodium gluconate was found to mask the bitterness of caffeine but to a bottom extent than zinc ions. After the effect of unlike salts on dissimilar biting compounds was studied, it was reported that some salts interact with bitter compounds differently than other salts [70]. As example, zinc sulphate, sodium acetate, and magnesium acetate significantly suppressed the bitterness of bitter chemical compound. The addition of zinc lactate to products containing caffeine, such as coffee and chocolate, was found to significantly reduce bitterness [69]. Despite the bitterness inhibition properties of zinc, its potential use as a bitterness masking agent in supplement formulations is express because of its stiff sweetness masking properties. However, zinc tin can be used with sodium cyclamate as a sweetener in bitter–sweet formulations because zinc sulphate does non mask the sweetness of sodium cyclamate. The bitterness suppression by zinc ions is suggested to originate from interactions with the bitter gustatory modality receptors at the peripheral level through the formation a complex with the extracellular portion of the TAS2Rs, whereas the bitterness masking effect by the sweetness perception is suggested to originate from central-level mechanisms. These hypotheses remain to be confirmed by experimental information.
Sodium chloride is an constructive bitterness inhibitor [72]. Past testing several combinations of cations and anions, these authors reported that the sodium cation inhibited the bitterness of pharmaceuticals more than the other tested cations, such as potassium, calcium, magnesium, and ammonium, which inhibited bitterness at lower, varying degrees. Anions were also establish to inhibit bitterness to various degrees when associated with the sodium cation, but the glutamate and adenosine monophosphate anions were more efficient compared to other anions such as chloride, gluconate, and glycerophosphate [72]. Although sodium chloride is a masking amanuensis of some biting compounds, such equally calcium chloride [67], some exceptions exist; for example, the bitterness of magnesium chloride is non masked past sodium chloride. Moreover, the intrinsic salty taste of calcium chloride is additive to the salty gustation of sodium chloride. A single, broad bitter gustation receptor that is able to detect a wide range of biting divalent and trivalent salts has recently been identified [73,74]. Using a cell-based functional assay, two studies accept revealed that the bitter sense of taste receptor TAS2R7 is responsible for the detection of a wide range of minerals, including zinc, calcium, magnesium, fe, copper, manganese, and aluminium, but non potassium ions.
Concerning calcium chloride, its bitterness tin can be suppressed by using masking agents. Equally an case, sucrose was establish to suppress the bitterness of calcium chloride, and citric acid was found to suppress the bitterness at high levels of calcium chloride, with a slight suppressive effect on the metallic perception [75]. Additionally, sucrose was constitute to decrease sourness, and citric acid was establish to decrease sweetness. The addition of sugars such as sucrose or trehalose decreases the biting and metallic perceptions of potassium chloride and thus enhances the saltiness perception and the sweetness perception [53].
Fat acids also contribute to the modulation of taste perception. Linolenic acid, EPA, and DHA were shown to substantially increase the umami sense of taste intensity and subtract bitterness [76]. Moreover, an increase in the content of DHA in oil tends to reduce bitterness and increase the umami perception in both model emulsions and a synthetic tuna extract emulsion [77].
Concerning vitamins, although vitamins such as B3, B5, and B6 may cause negative perceptual sensations, some may take a positive impact on sensory perception by acting as inhibitors of some tastes such every bit bitterness [78]. For example, a sensory study conducted in Japan demonstrated that a vitamin B5 derivative, calcium pantothenate (0.01 and 0.02%), was able to reduce the bitterness generated by the ingestion of saccharin or caffeine.
Such masking effects of some components could be used advantageously by industries as a strategy to avoid off-tastes in the formulation of nutritional supplements.
7. Conclusion and Perspectives
Nutritional supplements are mixtures of ingredients, nearly of which have gustation properties. For some of these components, such as vitamins and some specific minerals, essential data such as perception threshold values and taste qualities are missing and need to be considered in the development of the product. Even so, for virtually of the components used in the formulation of nutrients, notes of bitterness or metallic are non preferred by consumers and may result in a rejection of the product and a negative economic impact. Therefore, flavoring is a crucial attribute to consider in improving the formulation of supplements. The main objective of flavoring supplements is to increment their acceptability by the users, specially with the masking of off-flavors.
The extended-release formulations based on the apply of orally disintegrated capsules and hot melt coating are a challenge in tuning the release profile to meet the needs of the production, simply they can also evangelize a pleasant oral experience by offering an enhanced and prolonged taste, aroma and mouthfeel that mod consumers have come to expect. Thus, a potential strategy may be taking advantage of the development of new excipients and integrating their potential masking properties of bitterness or undesirable aromatic notes into the selection criteria [79]. For example, fishy burps are a challenge in delivering odorous oils such as omega-3 in nutritional supplements. At present, new microemulsion technologies have been explored every bit innovative and revolutionary solutions, leading to reduced off-flavors and increased acceptability by consumers.
In this review, nosotros accept reported that in the mixture context of sense of taste compounds, sensory interactions occur that tin lead to additive or masking furnishings. These gustation-taste interactions are dependent on the concentration of the taste stimuli. Particularly, it has been reported that bitterness can be suppressed by saltiness at subthreshold concentration, by sugariness, sourness, and saltiness at suprathreshold concentration, and by sweetness and saltiness at higher stimuli concentration [67]. Therefore, these interactions may be another tool in masking bitterness in nutritional supplements.
The physiological mechanism involved in taste-taste interactions are not yet well understood, but they are idea to occur at the gustatory modality receptor jail cell level. A thorough understanding of the mechanisms involved in taste receptors is therefore necessary to exist able to fully utilize the potential of the interactions betwixt bitterness and other tastes and to identify molecules blocking the perception of bitterness.
Lastly, it is also noteworthy that specific aromas are known to be able to enhance taste intensity such equally sweetness and saltiness intensities, through cognitive interactions, simply specific aroma can also suppress taste [eighty]. Thus, information technology could also be possible to use aromas to limit undesirable tastes such as bitterness in supplements by using, for example, sweetness-associated aromas.
Funding
The PhD of Thomas Delompré was funded by Bayer Healthcare SAS.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no disharmonize of involvement.
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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6770818/
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